ACC ~ Revelation 16 v3 - 21

OVERVIEW:

Those among the Jews who interpreted the law in a fleshly manner thought of the law as though it were a salty and bitter sea, and so, not recognizing Christ in the law, they crucified him. They will be led to condemn themselves and will be led to the further filth of worshiping the antichrist (PRIMASIUS). Those who attack the church by waves of persecution will be bloodied by a spiritual revenge (BEDE). As through Moses God exposed the hardheartedness of Pharaoh and revealed his own power, God will manifest the weakness of the antichrist and the instability of those whom he deceived (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). It may be, too, that the wars during the final days will bloody the seas by sea battles and the rivers and streams by land battles (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

16:3 | The Sea Became Like Blood

BLOODY RIVERS, STREAMS AND SEA. OECUMENIUS: The blood in the sea suggests those who are killed in naval battles, while the blood in the rivers and streams would refer to, most likely, the deaths of those who were killed in battles while encamped alongside such waters. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.2-7.

WORSHIPING THE ANTICHRIST. PRIMASIUS: [It says that] water turned to blood. It is easy to turn the soul from spiritual matters and think after the manner of the flesh, which we knew without difficulty to be symbolized in that first of the plagues that we read was inflicted upon the Egyptians. For then it reports that the fresh waters were turned to blood, whether the rivers of Egypt or the rain waters, as some translations have it, saying, “And their rain waters [were turned] to blood.” … However, the present passage raises a question, because here it says that the second bowl was poured into the sea, that is, into waters that are bitter and salty. And [the waters] became blood, it says, and every living thing in the sea died. It seems to me that this passage signifies those among the Jews who did not interpret the law spiritually but understood it in a fleshly manner, and therefore they could not discern Christ in it. As the apostle says, “Had they recognized [him], they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.” But in addition to this, they are led by the burden of their deserts to such an extent, as though struck by the second wound of an even worse plague, that they desire the image of the beast and, possessing the mark of its name, think that they ought worship the beast rather than Christ. And so, perhaps in this passage what is described in the exodus to have happened in the first plague is placed in the second bowl, in that from the sterile waters [of the sea] they also move to the filth of blood, through which it says that every living thing in the sea, that is, [every soul] in this world, has been killed, referring to the part from the whole, as in this passage, “There is no one who does good, no, not one.” To be sure, those are characterized by a manifest sterility of whom it is said, “I looked for it to yield grapes, but it yielded thorns.” And these are those whose tongues became so enfeebled that they said to their own condemnation, “his blood be on us and on our children.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.3.

THE CREATOR WILL REVEAL HIS POWER THROUGH ENOCH AND ELIJAH. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: It is not surprising that to expose the weakness of the antichrist and the light-mindedness of the deceived, the divine power would through the holy prophets, Enoch and Elijah, change the sea into “blood as of a dead man,” that is, as of one who had been slain, and would effect the corruption of all in it, just as long ago in Egypt he worked through Moses to expose the hardheartedness of Pharaoh and to demonstrate his own power. And therefore, those who were of secure faith were strengthened and the unstable were made fearful, seeing the creation arrayed against those who fought for the honor of the destroyer. It is also possible that through these words the slaughters that will happen in wars at the coming [of the antichrist] are indicated. For when Gog and Magog will move against each other in the four parts of the world and, in addition, the kings who had not obeyed will be annihilated with their whole armies and there will be slaughter in every place, then the sea will be defiled by sea battles, and the rivers will be mingled with the blood of those who were killed there. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.3.

BLOODIED BY A SPIRITUAL REVENGE. BEDE: Those who are marked not only by the sign of the beast but also attack the steadfast servants of Christ by the waves of persecution will be punished by a spiritual revenge, which here he calls “blood.” And those who boasted that they are alive will be proved to have served the author of death. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.3.

THE THIRD BOWL REVELATION 16:4-7

OVERVIEW: God is good. Therefore, he has desired that the holy angels also assist him in the providential succor and aid of those on earth who are in need of everything. So God gives to the angel set over the water the task of providing water to those in need of it because they are caught in drought and famine and sickness (OECUMENIUS). However, as though it were water turned to blood, the teaching of the nations contains within itself both natural error and impure lusts that have captured people’s minds in death and hostility toward God (PRIMASIUS). Persons who give foul teaching to the innocent and unaware will themselves be smitten by revenge (BEDE). Such persons have shed the blood of the prophets and have understood the spiritual law only in a fleshly way. Rightly, then, they are handed over to the corruptions of flesh and blood (PRIMASIUS). It is as though God had given them blood to drink, for those who turn from the prophets become participants in their murder (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Those who serve at the heavenly altar give thanks to God for his righteous judgments (OECUMENIUS). Indeed, while angels above give thanks to God, a divine angel attends to each one of us. This angel converses with our minds and rejoices when those who have been darkened by sin become contrite and confess to God. May our manner of life give cause for joy among the angels (ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

16:4 | Waters and Fountains Become Blood

NATURAL ERROR LEADS THE NATIONS TO DEATH. PRIMASIUS: [This bowl] contains all of the other nations who have been so overcome by natural error and enmeshed in impure lusts that they even think of divine things in a carnal manner. And so, by these waters one may understand the teachings of the Gentile nations. Therefore, it says, “They became blood,” just as it says in Genesis, “My spirit shall not abide in these people, for they are flesh,” and also in the book of Wisdom, “stirred up by filthy blood for rebuke.” In addition, the apostle says, “To set the mind on the flesh is death” and “the wisdom of the flesh is hostile to God.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.4.

SMITTEN BY CONTINUAL PLAGUE. BEDE: Those who feign to offer that which is sweet so that they might pour out their poison upon the unaware will be smitten by the deserved revenge of continual plague. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.4.

16:5-6 | Blood to Drink

ANGELS ASSIST GOD IN THE PROVIDENTIAL CARE OF THE WORLD. OECUMENIUS: “And I heard the angel of the waters saying,” it says. To be sure, God is all-powerful and provides for his creatures and is sufficient for the beneficial care of all things, and so he has need for no one to assist him in this task. For since his willing a work is for it at the same time to be effected, and since by the movement of his will all things were brought into being, how is it that he should be in need of a coworker and an assistant for his providential care? But since he is good, he wishes that also the holy angels be benefited through the succor which goes to those in need—for the one who aids another in need benefits not so much the other as he does himself, and there is none in the angelic ranks who is wanting for and in need of the aid of any other. And so God has ordained that the holy angels provide aid and succor to those on the earth who are in need of every good thing. For indeed, in earlier sections we noted that angels were placed as benefactors of the churches, and the all-wise Daniel wrote that the leader of the angels, Michael, looked after the race of the Jews. And now the Apocalypse explains to us that an angel is set over the waters. For although the world is constituted out of the four elements of air, fire, earth and also water—although some think that the heavenly things are established from some fifth element that they say is ethereal and moves in a circle—the three elements of fire, earth, and air are richly abundant for the purpose of breathing and for other common necessities, … water alone is not present to everything in abundance, whether it be fresh water in wells, springs, cisterns or rivers, or that water of the air that moves in the sky in clouds and gives to us timely rain by the command of God and nourishes every living thing on the earth. Therefore, since water is not everywhere abundant, one of the holy angels is set over it, so that when sufficiently abundant for what is needed he might provide to those who are in need of it that water which often is sparse and lacking due to our vices, causing drought and famine and the sickness that follows them. Most certainly it is this angel who is placed by the providence of God over the waters whom, he says, “I heard saying, ‘Righteous are you, who is and was, the holy One.’” The phrase who is shows the endlessness of God, and who was that he is without beginning. The Holy One refers to the fact that he is righteous in all things on behalf of all things. For it says, “You have judged these things,” so that those who have spilled the blood of the saints might drink blood. And it is necessary that those who encamped and fought by streams and rivers drink the water polluted by the blood of the dying being carried away downstream. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.2-7.

UNDERSTANDING THE SPIRITUAL LAW IN A FLESHLY WAY. PRIMASIUS: The angels of the waters are the messengers of the peoples who by an affection of the heart raise up together loud praises to God. … To be sure, both the Jews and the nations have in a bodily manner shed the blood of the saints, which the Lord says must be exacted “from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zachariah.” However, this plague might also be interpreted as a plague of that blindness so that they might even recognize that they have shed the blood of the prophets. For while they were abusing them [the prophets], they turned their minds to other things. It is as though he said, whoever understood the spiritual law in a fleshly way, they are justly handed over to the corruptions of the flesh and of blood when both the sins and the punishment for sins is recognized. Therefore, the apostle said, “For they did not receive the love of truth so that they might be saved; therefore, God shall send upon them a work of error to make them believe what is false, so that all may be condemned who did not believe the truth but had consented to iniquity.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.5-6.

THOSE WHO TURN FROM THE PROPHETS. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Here also it is shown that angels are placed over the elements. One of these, who is over the waters, sings a hymn to God for the just condemnation that has come upon the transgressors. For since they soiled their hands in the blood of the saints, God has given them blood to drink. By means of these words, it is shown either that at that time many are accounted worthy of the prophetic grace because of their remaining steadfast in faith, those, namely, who are killed by the henchmen of the devil, or that those who turn from the preaching of the prophets of God and justify their murder at the hands of the hardhearted Jews, become purposefully participants in their slaughter, as the Lord said to the Jews, “for although you build the tombs of the prophets, you consent in their murder.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.4-6.

16:7 | God’s Judgments Are Just

THE ANGELS PRAISE THE JUSTICE OF GOD. OECUMENIUS: Those who stand around the heavenly altar send up a thanksgiving in agreement with that of the angel, for when he says, “I heard the altar saying” something, it signifies thereby those who minister at the altar. May it be that, being delivered from all the sufferings described above, we send up to Christ a hymn of thanksgiving, to whom be glory forever. Amen. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.2-7.

EACH CHRISTIAN HAS A PERSONAL ANGEL. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Sometimes “the altar” signifies Christ, for in him and through him are brought to the Father our spiritual offerings and living sacrifices, which the apostle has instructed us to render. At other times “the altar” signifies the angelic powers who, we read, “are sent forth to serve for the sake of those who are to obtain salvation,” and so they carry upward our intercessions and spiritual sacrifices. From this ministering altar, it says, a voice proceeded, commend-ing as just all the judgments of God that surpass both thought and expression. We have learned from the Gospels that the intellectual powers are glad and rejoice over the salvation of those who turn through repentance but grieve over those who leave the straight way and yet give thanks to God for the punishment of those who transgress the divine commandments. So let us hasten to bestow upon them joy and gladness for our repentance, recognizing that a divine angel attends each one of us and by a certain unutterable word implants in us what must be done, in as much as his mind imperceptibly converses with our mind and he intends to rejoice over that which is heeded, but like God to grieve over that which is disregarded. And so from this converse that profits the soul we should understand that the angel, sad and from afar, follows a person who has been darkened by many sins and enters into the church. But if this person has been made contrite and confesses from the heart to him who delights in mercy that he has rejected his former life and has converted to a better one, when he departs [from the church], the angel leads the way cheerfully and joyfully, while the wicked demon, having been shamed, follows behind at a distance. May it be, then, that our holy manner of life give cause for dejection to the demons but cause for joy to the angels, so that together with them, rejoicing with a shout of gladness and the sound of confession, we might give thanks to Christ, our God, for his victory over the evil powers, with whom glory is due to the Father together with the Holy Spirit, now and always and forever and ever. Amen. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.7.

THE FOURTH BOWL

OVERVIEW: The devil and his followers are tormented by the constancy of the saints and are aroused to further blasphemy against God. While the saints and the elect are moved by the error of their sins, the wicked and the weak are rather inflamed by temporal desires (PRIMASIUS, BEDE). Although the devil glories in his own followers and what they do, the Holy Spirit defines this glory to be nothing but plagues and sorrows (BEDE). Although God attempts to draw such persons to repentance, many have fallen to such depravity of their minds that they prefer rather to blaspheme. By suffering the heat of temptations they might have come to hate sin. But they rather “sharpen their tongues” against God (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). At the end they and the persecutors of the church will be burned up by the fires of Gehenna (BEDE). Similarly, those who continue to live during the wars at the end could pray to God for release from their woes. Yet they will not repent but will rather curse God (OECUMENIUS). It is the habit of blasphemers to blame God for their iniquities and struggles rather than to blame themselves. Inflamed by envy when they see the church struggling with a tireless constancy, they exhale fires of hatred from their hearts (PRIMASIUS). Therefore, God sends plagues upon their souls. Nonetheless, they continue to persecute the saints (CAESARIUS OF ARLES).

16:8-9 | A Fierce Heat

THOSE AT THE END WILL CURSE GOD. OECUMENIUS: It is not difficult to interpret this passage according to the figures of speech. That the sun scorches people could be the drought, affliction and distresses of those remaining in war. Although they are pressed by evils and find it needful to petition God, who is powerful, for help and release from those who are oppressing them with sorrows, yet they cursed [God] and did not repent. It is clear that the plagues are for this purpose, to bring those to acknowledge God through torments, who did not acknowledge their Master through his beneficent work. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.8-11.

THE DEVIL BLASPHEMES GOD. PRIMASIUS: It is not given to the sun, but to that angel who poured out [the bowl] on the sun [to scorch people]. This fire is not to be regarded as that of Gehenna, for there no opportunity for blasphemy remains for anyone, when for the damned any attempt at repentance will be fruitless. And so the law says that they will say, “What has our arrogance profited us? And what good has the boast of our wealth brought to us?” Therefore, I think that in this passage the fire and the heat ought be interpreted to mean that the body of the devil is irremediably tormented by the steadfastness of the saints, and aroused by the heat, [he] is led to blasphemy. For perhaps it says “on the sun” in the sense of “by the sun,” as if he had put the sun in the ablative case, referring in this case to the “sun of righteousness.” We have such readings; for example, “I shall watch over my word to perform it,” and in Daniel, “Let us seek mercy from God Almighty over this mystery.” And so, from where the elect receive the steadfastness of their illumination, from there the wicked are said to obtain fire. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.8-9.

THROUGH SUFFERING SOME LEARN TO HATE SIN. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Perhaps humankind will literally be burned by the fierce heat of the sun. While God in his goodness “curbs them with bit and bridle who do not draw near to him” so that they might look toward repentance, some have fallen to such depths of evil that by the depravity of their minds they will not turn to conversion but rather to blasphemy. Perhaps, however, the image of the sun signifies the course of the day that burns those worthy of scourging by the heat of temptations, so that by the experience of sufferings they might learn to hate the mother of these things, namely, sin. However, those who are mindless concerning any knowledge of their own faults will “sharpen their tongue” against God, just as even now we see many who are distressed by the unspeakable horrors that encompass us at the hands of the barbarians and who blame the goodness of God, since he has held such evils for our own generation. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.8-9.

THE WISE REPENT OF THEIR EVIL. BEDE: The persecutors of the church, who like a burning sun attempt to dry up the seed of the word of God, will be burned in the future fire by the flames of Gehenna. Or, if one interprets the sun to be the splendor of the wise, it is not given to the angel to pour out upon the sun, but it is given to the sun itself to punish people with heat and fire. For while wise people, conquered by torments, are affected by the error of having done evil, the weak, persuaded by their example, are inflamed by temporal desires. However, the heat may also be understood to be that by which the person of the devil is incurably tormented by the steadfastness of the saints and is incited to blasphemy. The prophet has spoken concerning this [fire], “Zeal overcomes a people without understanding, and now fire consumes the adversaries.” It says “and now” because the fire of the last judgment is reserved. “And people were scorched by the fierce heat.” In the present time, so far as it is permitted, the devil glorifies his own followers, although the Holy Spirit has defined such glorification and joy to be nothing but plagues and sorrows. For we also read above that the army of the devil has killed people with fire, smoke and sulphur. Not that he killed them openly, but rather that with these plagues he binds to himself those who were in agreement with him. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.8-9.

16:9 | They Did Not Repent and Give Him Glory

IT IS THE HABIT OF BLASPHEMERS TO BLAME GOD. PRIMASIUS: It is the habit of blasphemers that they prefer to blame God for wickedness and iniquity rather than themselves, and therefore [they] do not seek penance after plagues but, even though tormented, continue to throw insults. For just as a bronze vase, when subjected to a great fire, brings up bubbles from the inside that boil up on the outside and exceed its own capacity, so also those who belong to the beast, resisting the Unconquered, see the church of Christ struggle with a tireless constancy, and inflamed by the flames of an intolerable envy, exhale a fire conceived in the heart through the blasphemies of an impure mouth. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.9.

THE PLAGUES FROM GOD HARDEN THE SOUL. CAESARIUS OF ARLES: These plagues from God do not strike them in the body but in the soul. And, therefore, they do not consider God but progress toward greater evil and for that reason blaspheme [God] and persecute his saints. EXPOSITION ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.9, HOMILY 12.

THE FIFTH BOWL REVELATION 16:10-11

OVERVIEW: At the coming of the Lord in glory, the impious tyranny of the antichrist will come to an end (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Bereft of the light of the “sun of righteousness” (ANDREW OF CAESAREA), his subjects will become darkened in their minds and confused (OECUMENIUS). The plagues sent from God will give such pain that some will gnaw on their tongues in the hope that the tribulation might cease (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Even now the kingdom of the antichrist is darkened, for many rejoice and make merry in their earthly happiness and do not remember their sins (PRIMASIUS, BEDE). Exalted by the arrogance of their temporary prosperity, they do not recognize the wrath of God and continue to curse God by reveling in their sins (PRIMASIUS, BEDE).

16:10-11 | People Gnawed Their Tongues and Cursed

WHEN THE LORD COMES IN GLORY. OECUMENIUS: The bowl of the fifth angel was poured out, it says, “on the throne of the beast, and its kingdom was in darkness.” The apostle wrote concerning the antichrist: “whom the Lord will slay with the breath of his mouth,” and Isaiah said, “Let the ungodly be taken away, that he see not the glory of the Lord.” By glory Isaiah is referring to the coming of the Lord in glory. Therefore when it says here that the bowl was poured out “on the throne of the beast,” it shows that the impious tyranny of the antichrist will receive its end and that he will be mercifully taken away, while by the unexpected retribution of the accursed, darkness will seize all those who allowed themselves to become his subjects. For they will endure a darkness of their reason, becoming befuddled by what is happening. “And they gnawed their tongues in anguish,” it says. This often happens in the most serious of afflictions when people are wont to cut off their tongues or some other part of the body with their teeth, thinking that this will bring the tribulation to naught. And it is necessary that these themselves repent, if for no other reason than because of the destruction of the antichrist whom they chose to be their king and god. But they continue to blaspheme the true God because of the destruction of the wicked one. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.8-11.

SINNERS REJOICE RATHER THAN REPENT. PRIMASIUS: The throne of the beast, or his kingdom, as it were, his judicial authority, is said to be darkened, because [its followers] are darkened by the joy of earthly happiness. And although they heartily rejoice in their present good rather than in the possessing of the highest blessedness, they “suppress the truth by wickedness,” and so gnaw at their own tongues. The psalm adds its voice to this understanding when it says, “whose mouths speak lies and whose right hand is a right hand of iniquity,” and “they spoke iniquity from on high.” Just like smoke, they rise by the arrogance of their temporary prosperity, from which they ought to turn in repentance, and although they are in the dark, they rejoice. As Job said, “They spend their days in prosperity, and in a moment they go down to hell.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.10-11.

BEREFT OF THE “SUN OF RIGHTEOUSNESS.” ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Pouring the bowl on the throne of the beast signifies the pouring out of a great wrath upon the kingdom of the antichrist. This kingdom is shown to be in darkness, that is, it is bereft of the light of the “sun of righteousness.” The gnawing of tongues reveals the intensity of the pain that those who have been deceived by him will have when they are struck by these plagues sent from God. These things will occur so that they might recognize that he whom they have worshiped as God is a fraud and so might want to be free from their deception. However, they will not turn from this to repentance. Rather, they will turn to further blasphemy. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.10-11.

SINNERS CURSE GOD BY REVELING IN THEIR SINS. BEDE: The throne of the beast, or his kingdom, as it were, his judicial authority is darkened by plagues of this kind, that is, by the false joy of earthly happiness. It became dark by being deprived of light, as the psalmist says, “You did cast them down even while they were being lifted up.” He did not say, “after they had been lifted up” [they gnawed their tongues.] Just as a right-eous person will eat the fruit of his labors, so also an ungodly person, given punishments worthy of his blasphemy, is sated, as it were, with his own tongue. Therefore, those who blaspheme are simply hurting themselves, thinking that the wrath of God by which they are impaled is in fact gladness. [And they cursed God.] He does not refer to their hardness [of heart] but to the righteous indignation of God, who gave [to them] such a plague that in it they cannot remember. For when afflicted by a bodily torment, who does not feel the hand of God, as did Antiochus? It says, “they cursed,” not that they did this openly, but in that they reveled in their sins. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.10-11.

THE SIXTH BOWL REVELATION 16:12-16

OVERVIEW: At the end of time, divine providence will cause the Euphrates River to diminish in size (ANDREW OF CAESAREA), perhaps by drying up some of its tributaries (OECUMENIUS). In this way the path is made easy for the kings of the east, who most likely will come from Scythia or from the eastern part of Persia (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). They will gather together for war against each other (OECUMENIUS) and to inflict bodily and spiritual death upon the rest of humankind (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Christ, too, will come as a king from the east for the judgment of those who like a dry river have nothing living remaining in it (PRIMASIUS).

From the mouths of the devil, the beast and the false prophet come foul spirits like frogs. They are likened to frogs because of their filthy nature (ANDREW OF CAESAREA) and because they love foul mud and live in sewers and because they rejoice in the life of those who likewise live in slime and filth (OECUMENIUS, PRIMASIUS, CAESARIUS OF ARLES). Even as frogs emit an annoying croaking, so teachers of error make a great noise by their damnable rantings (PRIMASIUS). Hypocrites, too, are like frogs, for they leave the waters of penance and baptism to wallow in the mud of their sins and vices (CAESARIUS OF ARLES). From such persons saints and teachers of truth are as distant as they are from frogs (PRIMASIUS). Yet, as the magicians of Pharaoh earlier did marvels, these foul spirits will also perform wonders and signs. During the time of the present life they make nations captive to their superstitions and so enroll them in the army of Satan (TYCONIUS). At the time of the consummation they will gather the kings together for war against God, but they will be utterly defeated (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

It is necessary, therefore, that in our present life we do not stain the garment of our baptism with sins (TYCONIUS), for our good works become for us a garment of a holy body and a virtuous life. Apart from this garment we will stand naked at the last judgment (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Since the covering of good works can clothe the dishonor of an earlier life (BEDE), we should ask the Lord to wash the robes of our souls so that we might enter the bridal chamber to meet the pure and blameless Bridegroom. The kings will gather at a place called “cutting,” for the devil delights in human blood (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). The place is also called “general uprising in former things,” for the devil will resume his previous activity of plotting against the Lord (BEDE).

16:12 | The River Euphrates Dried Up

THE WAY TO WAR IS MADE EASY. OECUMENIUS: The sixth angel made the Euphrates River passable, perhaps by drying up some of its tributaries, so that the crossing of it would be easy for the many kings who by the work of the devil and the allowance of God were gathered together for war against each other. For … the Lord said that there would also be wars near the time of the consummation. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12-16.

CHRIST IS COMING FOR THE JUDGMENT. PRIMASIUS: [The waters dried up to prepare the way for the coming king from the east], that is, for Christ, concerning whom we read, “Behold a man, whose name is East,” for him who is coming a way is prepared so that he might judge. Moreover, in the name of the river, Euphrates, as in the sea, the rivers, the springs of water, the sun and the throne of the beast, over all of which the angels are said to have poured out their bowls, those peoples who are impure are indicated. And its waters were made dry, it says. This means that these peoples will possess nothing which is green or living within themselves, for what they have will be fit for the fire of the approaching judgment. Just as it said above that the crop was withered in its ripeness and that the vintage was harvested, so in this passage it says metaphorically that the water of the river had become dry so that nothing at all living remained in it, but rather that everything was to be destroyed by the fire of divine judgment, by which either the wicked are consumed as straw or the saints are made approved as gold. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12.

FROM THE REGION OF THE SCYTHIANS OR FROM EAST PERSIA. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Perhaps by divine providence the Euphrates River will diminish in size and provide passage to the kings of the nations for their wars of destruction against each other and the rest of humankind. According to what is adduced in subsequent portions of the Revelation, we think that the mention of Gog and Magog suggests that these kings will arise out of the region of the Scythians. But it is also possible that the antichrist, coming out of the eastern regions of Persia, where the Hebrew tribe of Dan resides, will cross the Euphrates with other kings or with strong men who have received a royal name, and [they will] inflict upon humankind either bodily death to some on account of their faith and perseverance or spiritual death to others because of their cowardice and faintheartedness. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12.

16:13 | Three Foul Spirits Like Frogs

DEMONS ARE LIKE FROGS. OECUMENIUS: He calls the devil, that originator of evil, a “dragon.” But by the title of “false prophet” he refers either to a certain other who prophesies through the operation of the devil or to the antichrist. However, should he be speaking completely of the antichrist whom above he introduced as one slain by the breath of the Lord and whom now he depicts as still alive—he pours out demons through his mouth—let not the reader be amazed. For that which is seen is a vision, and the Evangelist often shows that which comes first as last, and contrariwise that which is last as first. … He calls the demons “frogs” because they rejoice at that life of people that is muddy and slimy. Moreover, they take pleasure in the life of sinners, which is moist and without constraint, rather than in the life of the righteous, which is steadfast and austere, being also very envious and joyful at the destruction of the living. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12-16.

TEACHERS OF TRUTH DIFFER FROM FALSE PROPHETS. PRIMASIUS: In view of the various passions in all of the vexations and vices they cause, evil spirits are said to possess a diversity of characteristics. And so, rightly did [Jesus] say somewhere in the Gospel, “deaf and dumb spirit,” and elsewhere, “unclean spirit,” and elsewhere the prophet said, “a spirit of harlotry had led them astray,” for no other reason than that those under its control perform the uncleanliness of its own vice. Here, however, he includes all three unclean spirits, because he indicates that the one body of the devil is made up of its habitual differences, mentioning those [spirits] that possess the greater power, starting with the devil as the dragon; then the beast, which is the antichrist with his followers; and the false prophet, who represents the leaders and teachers of noxious doctrines. Therefore, he sees one spirit but mentions three for the number of the parts of the one body, so that every one of the lost is shown to be led by one malign spirit. Perhaps for this reason he adds the horrible filthiness of frogs as a comparison with their impudence. For like frogs living in the sewers at night, these false prophets make a great noise through the damnable ranting of their error. Just as frogs are loathsome in the places they inhabit, in their appearance and in their annoying croaking, so the devil with his followers is recognized to be abominable to the truth and is deservedly and justly damned to eternal fire. The blessed apostle says something similar when he says, “Do not be mismated with unbelievers. For what partnership have righteousness and iniquity? Or what fellowship has light with darkness? What accord has Christ with Belial? Or what has a believer in common with an unbeliever? What agreement has the temple of God with idols?” And so here, when it says that from their mouths came forth unclean spirits similar to frogs, it is as though it said, why do you compare filth to heaven when it is fitting as a habitation of frogs even as it is of the horrible blasphemies of the false prophets? He is claiming that the teachers of the truth are as far removed [from such persons] as frogs are from holy persons, so that those who are not able to recognize that their frauds must be refuted by the power of discretion, may at least, when confronted by the ugliness of frogs, attempt to avoid such persons who, like frogs, are a hindrance to the ignorant lest they receive the truth in the quiet practice of devotion. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.13.

LIKE FROGS IN MUD, HYPOCRITES WALLOW IN SIN. CAESARIUS OF ARLES: In addition to their ugly appearance, frogs are unclean also in their places of habitation. Although they seem to be native to the waters, they cannot endure it when the waters recede or dry up, and they roll around in the waters themselves and in the mud and filth of the waters. The hypocrites likewise do not spend their time in the waters, as they seem to, but in filthy acts that those who believe lay aside in the water. Similar to frogs are such persons who are not ashamed to wallow in sins and vices, which others put aside through penance or baptism. Whenever someone converts to God and repents that he had been arrogant, adulterous, drunken or lustful, such a person imitates these sins that another has relinquished by confessing and thinking to himself says, “I do what I want and later I will do penance as that one has done penance.” But suddenly the last day overtakes him, and any confession is lost and his damnation remains. Such is that person who wishes to imitate others, not in that which is good but in that which is evil, and like frogs cover themselves and roll around in that muck and mire from which others have been liberated. Frogs, therefore, signify the spirits of demons who do signs and wonders. EXPOSITION ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.13-14, HOMILY 13.

EVIL SPIRITS HAVE A FILTHY NATURE. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: This passage mentions individually the devil as a dragon, the antichrist as a beast, and the false prophet as another figure distinct from the other two. It says that spirits similar to frogs come out from these, for they are characterized by a poisonous and filthy nature, and these evil powers love the mud and creep toward foul and moist pleasures. By the commands of the devil and of the antichrist and of the false prophet, they will use their mouths to show false signs and wonders to humankind. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.13.

16:14 | The Demonic Spirits Gather the Kings of the World

CAPTIVE TO SUPERSTITIONS. TYCONIUS: We are to believe that these will do wonders even as was the case through the magicians of Pharaoh. Not without reason did he recollect their deeds at the mention of the frogs, so that he might foretell that the ministers of Satan will themselves do similar wonders. For until the sign of the frogs the magicians had been allowed to prevail through their incantations. “They go out to the kings to gather them for war.” This does not mean that there will be an assembly from every place on the earth to one location but that each and every nation made captive in its own place to its own superstitions will wish to serve in the army [of Satan]. … The “day of the Lord” must be interpreted according to various situations and contexts. Sometimes it refers to the whole time from the passion of the Lord, so that those who are going to be condemned to the last judgment are said now to be gathered together, as though to say, prepared. At other times “day of the Lord” can be understood to refer to the day of judgment itself, and at other times the phrase refers to the time of persecution, in which case it is clear that people of this kind are gathered together throughout the whole time of the present life. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.14.

THE TIME OF CONSUMMATION. OECUMENIUS: One form of the wonders [worked by] the demons is that they gather the kings for war against each other at the time of the consummation. And he calls this day or that time “great,” for it is truly great and fearful and is so called also by Joel, who says, “before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12-16.

THOSE WHO FIGHT AGAINST GOD. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: The false signs produced by the demons will cause those who follow them to make war on the “great and terrible day of God, the Judge of the living and the dead.” On that day, those who fight against God will be utterly defeated and, although they lament over their former deception, they will weep in vain. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.14.

16:15 | “I Am Coming Like a Thief!”

NOT STAINING THE VESTMENT OF BAPTISM WITH SIN. TYCONIUS: The apostle also says, “He will come like a thief in the night.” … [The apostle] says, “As many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ.” I think that here he urges that these vestments be preserved so that they will not be torn asunder by repeated baptism or besprinkled and stained by the spots of sins. In either case the ugliness of their treachery is uncovered which might have been avoided had their intention been preserved with a greater vigilance. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.15.

KEEPING THE BODY PURE AND HOLY. OECUMENIUS: “Lo, I am coming like a thief,” says the Lord. He says “like a thief” because of the suddenness and unexpectedness of his second coming. “Blessed is he who is awake and keeps his garments that he may not go naked.” He continues the image of the thief. Therefore, he said that it is necessary to preserve one’s garments that they not be lost. By the term garments he refers either to that virtuous and decent life through which we become worthy of God’s protection, or he refers to the body, that it be pure and holy. For he who does not keep [his garments] will be ashamed in front of the divine throne of the angels and of people, harried by the judgment at that time and left “naked” of divine succor. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.12-16.

GOOD WORKS ARE THE GARMENTS OF THE SAINTS. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: “To be awake and to keep one’s garments” means to remain vigilant and always concerned with good works. For [good works] are the garments of the saints, and were one to be without these, one would necessarily be made ashamed as one naked and full of shamefulness. … We are taught in this passage that it is a terrible thing to be naked of the garments of virtue, and … we have learned from the Gospel parable that he who is without this is thrown out of the bridal chamber. And … we have learned from the apostolic saying that speaks of incorruptibility, “that putting this on, we shall not be found naked,” that is clearly of good works. [Therefore] let us earnestly beseech the Lord that he wash the robes of our souls, so that, as the word of the psalm says, “they may be made whiter than snow,” lest we hear, “Friend, how did you get in here without a wedding garment?” and “having our hands and feet bound, be cast into outer darkness.” Rather, as the wise Solomon says, let us “always have our garments white” and wear [robes] bright and white from a virtuous life, decorated with sympathy. And so [let us] enter into the bridal chamber with the pure and blameless Bridegroom of holy souls, Christ our God, with whom glory, might and honor is due to the Father, together with the Holy Spirit, now and always, and forever and ever. Amen. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.15-16.

THE GOOD WORKS OF THE FAITHFUL. BEDE: “Blessed are those whose sins are covered,” who before the eyes of the saints cover the dishonor of a reprehensible life at the judgment with the covering of subsequent good works. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.15.

16:16 | Assembled at a Place Called “Armageddon”

MANY WILL BE “CUT UP.” ANDREW OF CAESAREA: Armageddon is translated as “cutting” or “being thoroughly cut up.” And so we should think that the nations gathered and led for battle there by the devil will be slaughtered, since the devil rejoices in human blood. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.16.

THE DEVIL RESUMES HIS FORMER PLOTS. BEDE: Elsewhere he mentions this place and says, “He gathered them for battle, and they surrounded the camp of the saints and the beloved city,” that is, the church. [Or] the place of the ungodly can be understood to be the devil, who in the man of perdition, puffed up with an usurped deity, will be glad to resume his former plots, which were formerly forbidden by the Lord. For Armageddon is interpreted to mean “a general uprising in former things” or “a spherical mountain.” EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.16.

THE SEVENTH BOWL REVELATION 16:17-21

OVERVIEW: When the commandment and will of God are accomplished (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA) and the last enemy, death, is destroyed (BEDE), an angelic voice from heaven will say, “It is done!” At that time when the Christ comes, there will be alarm, terror and turmoil on the earth (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA). The greatest of all tribulations and wondrous signs, whether from the good or from the bad, will occur (BEDE) similar to those that announced the descent of God upon Sinai (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). This time will also commence the transformation of the visible world (OECUMENIUS, ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

Moreover, at that time cities will fall and the peoples will be divided. This will include Jerusalem, which is great not because of its buildings but because of the sufferings of Christ in it. This city will be divided into Christians, Jews and Samaritans, for at the present time the Jews and the Samaritans do not dare to separate themselves from the Christians. But when the cleansing fire of temptation comes, they will be unmasked and a division will take place, for the sinners will gather together with those of like habit (ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

This division similarly will distinguish those who remained steadfast in faith, those who defiled their baptism with filthy deeds, and the Jews who did not receive the proclamation of the gospel (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Rome also will fall at this time, as will those who seize it. Indeed, all cities will fall at the end, for when the earth is becoming new, no city befouled by the habitation of sinners can stand (OECUMENIUS), nor will the pagan manner of life remain at the coming of the kingdom of God (ANDREW OF CAESAREA).

The great city may also be understood to be the city of all the haughty and arrogant people who will be divided into Gentiles, heretics and Jews, and the false brothers (PRIMASIUS). Or the great city may represent all people upon the earth, for at the end these will be divided into Gentiles, heretics and false brothers, and the catholic church (CAESARIUS OF ARLES). During the great tribulation the church will be established in stability like islands and mountains (PRIMASIUS, BEDE), and especially the Gentile churches will rejoice, for like islands they rose above their distasteful idolatry (OECUMENIUS). Yet the church will flee at the coming of these terrible occurrences. For wisely she will hide from her persecutors (BEDE) and will seek refuge among the mountains and caves to preserve her piety (ANDREW OF CAESAREA) and to avoid all contact with evil persons so that there be no longer any mixture of the wicked with the church (PRIMASIUS).

Despite all of this, some will continue to curse God, even in the midst of their torments. They will prove to be even more intransigent than was Pharaoh, who at least to some extent relented of his hardness of heart (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Such ongoing blasphemy will be both sin and a punishment of sin, for these impious become worse and more demented when they are being corrected (PRIMASIUS).

16:17-18 | It Is Done!

THE FULFILLMENT OF GOD’S WILL. OECUMENIUS: He poured out the bowl in the air, and the voice said, “It is done!” What is done? To be sure, the commandment of God and his will. And when from the air the voice said, “It is done,” there were flashes of lightning and voices, lightning from on high and voices from those on the earth who were alarmed by the lightning. “And peals of thunder and an earthquake.” By “earthquake” he means either the turmoil of the earth, since this also is included in the signs of the end, or he means the transformation of the visible world, as it is said in Haggai: “Once again I will shake not only the heaven but also the earth and the sea and the dry land; and I will shake all nations.” Therefore, he also indicated that there had never been such an earthquake. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.17-21.

THE FUTURE COMING OF CHRIST WILL BE TERRIFYING. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: The angelic voice from heaven said, “It is done!” That is, the commandment of God has been accomplished. The flashes of lightning and the voices and the thunders are symbolic of the terrifying nature of these occurrences and of the future coming of Christ, just as long ago they announced the descent of God upon Mount Sinai. The earthquake signifies the transformation of that which exists, as the apostle explained: “Yet once more I will shake not only the earth but also the heaven.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.17-18.

A TRIBULATION SUCH AS NEVER BEFORE. BEDE: Just as above the blood of vengeance goes out as far as the bridles of the horses, that is, to the unclean spirits, so also here, when the final revenge was poured over the same powers of the air, it is said, “It is done.” That is, the end is come, when, as the apostle says, “the last enemy, death, will be destroyed.” … When at the end of time there will be such a tribulation as has never been from the beginning, the greatest signs will similarly be evident. However, whether they come from the side of the good or from the side of the evil or come from both sides, as was the case with Moses and the magicians, is in this passage not sufficiently made clear. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.17-18.

16:19 | The Great City Split into Three Parts

ALL CITIES, DEFILED BY SIN, WILL FALL. OECUMENIUS: By the words “the great city” he speaks of Jerusalem, and it is clear that in this way he distinguishes it from the cities of the nations. For it is customary in the holy Scriptures to call the rest of humankind apart from Israel by the term nations. And he speaks of it as “great,” as though it were famous. But all the cities fell. For when the earth is being transformed and is becoming new, how could it be that the cities in it would stand, having been defiled by the habitation of sinners? “And God remembered great Babylon, to give to it the cup of the wine of the wrath of his anger.” In a foregoing passage it says, “And a second angel followed, saying, ‘Fallen, fallen, is Babylon the great.’ ” But in this present passage, he intends for us to think of another Babylon, not that one, and he assigns to it another sense. I think that he is speaking of Rome and of those who will capture it at that time, as the narrative will teach further on. And, therefore, he says, “God remembered great Babylon,” that is, God remembered its former sins, when they persecuted and killed the saints. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.17-21.

THE REPROBATE POPULATION DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS. PRIMASIUS: The city that was great because of the size of its population and that was haughty and arrogant because of its immodest enterprises shall fall into three parts. One part will be of the Gentiles, another of the heretics and the Jews, and the third part which is of the false brothers is rejected, for they “confess to know God, but they deny him by their deeds; they are detestable, disobedient, unfit for any good deed.” The passage continues, “The cities of the nations fell,” that is, all the strength and confidence of the nations fell. “And that great Babylon was remembered and came under the sight of God.” This indicates that the multitude of all of the damned were confused. “And he gave to her from the wine of the fury of his wrath.” It describes the wicked receiving the retribution of that revenge that they merited. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.19.

ALL PEOPLE DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS. CAESARIUS OF ARLES: This great city is to be understood as in general every people that is under heaven and that is seen to be in three parts when the church is divided [into three parts]. And so, the Gentiles are considered to be one part, the heretics and false Christians [are] another part, and the catholic church [is] the third part. EXPOSITION ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.19, HOMILY 13.

THE CLEANSING FIRE OF TEMPTATION. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: We understand Jerusalem to be a “great city” not because of the number and size of its buildings but as that which is the most ancient and greatest in regard to godliness, in as much as it was made great by the sufferings of Christ and is to be distinguished from the cities of the nations. We think that the division of this city into three parts suggests the division between the Christians and the Jews and the Samaritans who live in it. Or the division is of those who are steadfast in faith and those who have defiled their baptism with filthy works and the Jews who have in no way received the proclamation. … For at the present time the Jews and Samaritans hide their real intentions out of fear of our pious rulers, and they seem to be associated with us, not daring to separate themselves with their own people. It is similar to the fact that those who are truly Christians are intermingled with those who possess the name [of Christian] alone. But when the cleansing fire of temptations will unmask them, then there will occur the division of these people into the three groups of the impious, the pious and the sinners, and these will gather together with those of like habits and be associated with their own kind. The falling of the cities of the nations indicates either their destruction or the cessation of the pagan manner of life at the coming of the kingdom of God, which, according to Daniel, the saints will possess. “And God remembered great Babylon, to make her drain the cup of the wine of the fury of his wrath.” The thronging multitude, confounded by the meaningless distractions of life and made great by the wealth of their injustices, will drink the cup of the wrath of God. It is as though they went from a merciful forgetfulness [of God] to a remembrance and now faced the retribution for their trampling of the righteous One and for the impiety of their words and deeds. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.19.

16:20 | Islands and Mountains Vanish

THE RANKS OF DEMONS WILL BE OBLITERATED. OECUMENIUS: By islands he speaks of the Gentile churches, as the prophet says, “The Lord has reigned; let the earth be glad, and let the many islands rejoice.” He calls them “islands” because they lifted their heads and rose above their bitter and distasteful idolatry. Someone might also think otherwise and interpret the “islands” to refer to the impure orders of the demons, since they wallow in this briny and turbulent life. But that he refers to demons when he mentions the “mountains,” even the holy psalmist shows, singing, “The mountains melt like wax before the Lord, for he is coming,” Therefore, this passage transmits to us that the ranks of the demons at that time will be wiped out and obliterated. And, where might the wretched flee from God, in whose hand are the corners of the earth and who measured the heaven with a span and the earth with his hand—unless those who are smitten by these events should attempt a futile flight and escape? When these things take place and there is a violent hailstorm, it is necessary that people at that time turn to prayers and entreaties—for these signs against them might have ceased, but they rather cursed God and therefore these evils even intensified against them. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.17-21.

THE CHURCH WILL BE ESTABLISHED. PRIMASIUS: It is my view that by the terms islands and also mountains the church is signified on account of the greatness of its stability. Isaiah spoke about these: “In [your] teachings give glory to the Lord; in the islands of the sea [give glory] to the name of the Lord, the God of Israel,” and again: “And in the latter days that mountain of the house of the Lord will be established upon the tops of the mountains.” This flight will occur when the society of evil persons is at last avoided to such an extent that there will be no confusion or mixture of the church with the wicked. Therefore, the prophet said, “Flee from the midst of Babylon, let every one save his life.” Babylon will fall at that time when at the end it has received the power to persecute the saints. For this reason [Scripture] says, “The heart is proud before destruction, and the spirit is humbled before glory.” COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.20.

FLEEING TO MOUNTAINS AND CAVES. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: The holy Scriptures have taught us that “islands” refer to the churches and “mountains” refer to those who are leaders in them. That they flee at the time of the arrival of the aforementioned occurrences, we have heard from the Lord, who said, “Then they will flee from the east to the west and from the west to the east. For there will be a great tribulation, such as has not been from the foundation of the world, nor will ever be.” At that time some will be tormented for their sins, and others will endure misfortunes for the testing of their virtue. Such misfortunes will not only be those torments from the antichrist which they suffer for the sake of Christ, but also their flights and their sufferings among the mountains and caves. For they will prefer the mountains and caves to living in the cities for the sake of preserving their piety. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.20.

THE CHURCH WILL HIDE. BEDE: The church, which is compared with islands and to mountains because of its excellent stability, wisely hides herself from the attacks of the persecutors. EXPLANATION OF THE APOCALYPSE 16.20.

16:21 | Great Hailstones

BOTH SIN AND THE PUNISHMENT FOR SIN. PRIMASIUS: The hail represents the wrath of [God’s] revenge, of which we read, “The wrath of the Lord descends as hail.” The Lord desires to protect his followers from this, for he says through the apostle, “[Jesus] delivers us from the wrath to come.” Nor is it without reason that he mentions the weight of a talent. For [the punishment] inflicted on each person by the equity of the divine judgment is due to a diversity of sins. Among the Greeks the talent is regarded as a certain weight and among the Romans as a certain different weight. Indeed, some things are sins, while other things are the punishments, and yet other things are both sins and punishments. … In this passage the blaspheming of God for the hail is recognized to be both sin and the punishment of sin by which the impious are so blinded that they do not come to their senses even when corrected, and so by these punishments [they] become even worse and more demented. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.21.

EVEN MORE HARDENED THAN PHARAOH. ANDREW OF CAESAREA: We think that the hail that comes down from heaven is the wrath from God, which also comes from above. That this hail weighs a hundredweight indicates the completeness [of its fearful torment] on account of the extremity and seriousness of the sins, which the image of the talent suggests and as Zechariah saw. That those who are smitten by this hail are moved to blasphemy rather than to repentance reveals the unyielding hardness of their hearts. And so they will be like Pharaoh, or rather they will be even more intransigent than he was. For he at least to some extent was softened by the plagues sent from God and confessed his own ungodliness, but these persons will blaspheme even in the midst of being tormented. COMMENTARY ON THE APOCALYPSE 16.21.

THE GREAT HARLOT REVELATION 17:1-5

OVERVIEW: Old Rome was a harlot, for she was an apostate from God and compelled others to follow in her idolatry (OECUMENIUS). Moreover, the Senate of Rome and its kings from Domitian to Diocletian were guilty of the blood of the saints (VICTORINUS). However, old Rome has lost its former dominion, and it is unlikely that it will ever regain its ancient status. It is more likely, therefore, that the harlot is the earthly kingdom in general which will be condemned at the end (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Indeed, the multitude of the lost are aptly called “harlot,” for they have allowed themselves to be ravished by demons and are abandoned by the Creator (PRIMASIUS, BEDE). They are corrupted by wickedness and made mad by impiety and are called “great” because of the enormity of their transgressions (PRIMASIUS). The faithful, however, are betrothed to one husband and are presented as a pure bride to Christ (BEDE).

Not surprisingly, the woman has the image of the devil and is a murderess (VICTORINUS) and sits upon the devil, who is himself a murderer and scarlet with the blood of the saints (OECUMENIUS). Sitting upon the beast who is always arrayed against the Lamb, the woman sits as one exalted by the pride of presumption (PRIMASIUS) and, like the devil, she delights in blood and becomes a coworker with him in his blasphemies against God (ANDREW OF CAESAREA). Void of the paradise of God’s presence (PRIMASIUS), the woman is seen in the desert, that is, with those who are deserted by God and dead in their souls (CAESARIUS OF ARLES).

The earthly dominion of the beast claims universality and so assails the faithful by open aggression and desires to ensnare them by a fraudulent truth. Nothing indicates more the bogus power of this kingdom than the claim of the antichrist to be the Christ and so to seduce humankind by imitation, fraud and deceit. Against this vain and unclean spirit Christ gives his own Holy Spirit, the Spirit of wisdom, of understanding, of counsel, of fortitude, of knowledge, of piety and of the fear of God (PRIMASIUS). The kingdom of the devil and of the antichrist is arrayed with jewels and gold as though it were rich, beautiful and royal. However, it is all deceit, for it is full of pretense and false allurements (TYCONIUS), of idolatries and defilements (OECUMENIUS).

This harlot desires to multiply her own fornication, and as a mother gives birth to her own children (OECUMENIUS), so she gives birth to transgressions that are loathsome to God (ANDREW OF CAESAREA, BEDE). As a display of their piety, therefore, chaste and modest virgins ought to shun the adornments of the harlot and the allurements of beauty, since these are the insignia of brothels (CYPRIAN).